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In particular, we emphasize exploratory tools that can guide spatial sampling and highlight the need for greater use of mixed-effects models that account for spatial variability while also allowing researchers to account for both individual- and habitat-level covariates. We use these findings to describe tools from geostatistics and spatial modeling that can improve inference about the associations between environmental and immunological variation. We also highlight statistical biases in macroimmunology, in that few studies characterize and account for spatial dependence statistically, potentially affecting inferences for the relationships between environmental conditions and immune defense. We show that whereas spatial approaches are relatively common, spatial replication is generally low and unlikely to provide sufficient environmental variation or power to differentiate competing spatial hypotheses. We review 210 ecoimmunology studies sampling multiple host populations. We next conduct a systematic review of the literature to assess the frequency of spatial studies and to classify them according to taxa, immune measures, spatial replication and extent, and statistical methods. We first review spatial factors that could generate spatial variation in defense, highlighting the need for large-scale studies that can differentiate competing environmental predictors of immunity and detailing contexts where this approach might be favored over small-scale experimental studies. We provide a synthesis of how to apply macroecological approaches to the study of ecoimmunology (i.e., macroimmunology). Identifying the most important spatial drivers of immunity could help preempt infectious disease risks, especially in the context of how large-scale factors such as urbanization affect defense by changing environmental conditions.

Spatial variation in parasite pressure, abiotic and biotic conditions, and anthropogenic factors can all shape immunity across spatial scales. Because the immune system serves as the primary barrier to infection, replication, and transmission following exposure, we here consider the environmental drivers of immunity. Over 450 Knives & Gloves || Awp dragon lore bs 0.48, Awp gungnir bs 0.51, Bayonet sapphire fn 0.01, Ak gold arabesque bs 0.51, Bowie sapphire fn 0.03, Bowie emerald fn 0.01, Sport gloves omega mw 0.12, Shadow daggers emerald fn 0.01, M9 lore 0.22 ft, Butterfly case hardened mw 0.The prevalence and intensity of parasites in wild hosts varies across space and is a key determinant of infection risk in humans, domestic animals, and threatened wildlife.

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